With the Year of the Snake arriving, the Legend of the White Snake — a household folklore passed down for more than 1,000 years — serves as a muse of many cultural programs and activities celebrating the Spring Festival holiday.

As one of the country's Four Great Folklores, the legend centering on two snake spirits intertwines with the fabric of Chinese culture, evolving from the Tang Dynasty (618-907) to the Ming (1368-1644) and Qing (1644-1911) dynasties, forging its influence in modern times.

Retold through novels, films, TV series, stage plays, and animated works, this tale exudes a lasting sense of mystery, unwavering love, and bravery in confronting oppression and stereotypes while sparking a deep contemplation on women's rights to pursue free marital choices.

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"In the earliest versions of the White Snake legend, the snake spirit was depicted as an evil monster. The story carries a strong admonitory message — warning men not to be tempted by their desires as it may lead to life-threatening consequences," says Wang Yong'en, a professor at the School of Theater, Film, and Television at the Communication University of China.

Some researchers believe that Gu Shenzi's novella collection Bo Yi Zhi (The Monstrous Stories) written during the Tang Dynasty is one of the earliest prototypes. In the story, Li Huang, a government official's nephew, encounters a beautiful widow in Chang'an, the capital of the dynasty (now Xi'an, Shaanxi province). After a successful courtship and living with the widow for three days, Li returns home and falls ill. He later discovers that his body has melted into liquid, leading to his death. The woman turns out to be a snake demon.

But what laid the foundation for most remakes in modern society is Jing Shi Tong Yan (Stories to Caution the World), a collection of short stories compiled by writer Feng Menglong during the Ming Dynasty.

"The story still centers on the theme of human resistance to sexual temptation but its conclusion introduces an emotional dimension to the White Snake demon, thereby adding a human interest element," Wang remarks.

By relocating the story to Hangzhou in Zhejiang province, then known as Lin'an, the capital of the Southern Song Dynasty (1127-1279), Feng's narrative follows Xu Xuan, a handsome but impoverished man. Bai Niangzi, the white snake demon, schemes to make him marry her because she finds Xu attractive.

But their tranquil and harmonious life is disturbed by Fahai, a powerful Buddhist monk. Showcasing his cowardliness and coldness, Xu betrays his wife and traps Bai with a magic bowl given by Fahai. He then becomes a monk, seeking alms to build a seven-story pagoda to suppress the snake demon. Xu Xuan was changed to Xu Xian in later works since the Qing Dynasty.

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Xiaoqing, depicted as a green snake spirit 500 years younger than the White Snake demon in most subsequent adaptations, is portrayed as a massive black carp up to 3.3 meters long in Feng's tale.

"When the snake demon is trapped, she turns her head and looks deep into Xu's eyes, expressing sadness and surprise," says Wang.

This nuance, unlike the lust and desire in the Tang Dynasty version, is largely attributed to Feng, the talented and charismatic writer who staunchly advocated for natural emotions such as love, even though it was considered indecent in feudal society. In ancient China, young couples often entered into marriages arranged by their parents and matchmakers, not meeting their future spouse until the wedding.

With further adaptations spanning from the Qing Dynasty to the early 20th century, the legend has been enriched with detailed elaborations and infused with elements reflecting each era.

In later retellings, scriptwriter Fang Chengpei's Kunqu opera script Leifeng Ta (The Leifeng Pagoda), first published in 1771, introduced a new, iconic scene — the White Snake summons a flood to submerge Fahai's Jinshan Temple, compelling the monk to release the captive Xu.

Newer adaptations

In recent decades, advancements in special effects technology and the film and television industry have transformed the centuries-old folktale into a narrative that resonates with modern values, incorporating themes of pursuing free choice and struggles against societal constraints.

One of the most influential adaptations is the TV series New Legend of Madame White Snake starring Hong Kong actresses Angie Chiu and Cecilia Yip, which made its debut in Taiwan in 1992 and was introduced to the mainland in 1993. It quickly became a hit and was rescreened numerous times in the following two decades.

Comprising 50 episodes, the drama deepened the complexity of each character and introduced many plot twists — for instance, the son of the White Snake and Xu rescue his mother who is imprisoned in the Leifeng Pagoda upon reaching adulthood.

Maverick director Tsui Hark's 1993 movie Green Snake takes a bold step in retelling the legend.

For the first time on the silver screen, Fahai — previously portrayed by senior actors — is played by young, handsome martial arts star Zhao Wenzhuo, with his role exploring the monk's struggle with rigidity and bias, adding depth to the character and challenging the audience's perception of good and evil.

However, for young Chinese audiences in their 20s and 30s, it is the animated franchise White Snake, produced by Beijing-based Light Chaser Animation, that has introduced them to, and sparked their interest in, the story. The series released three consecutive installments in 2019, 2021 and 2024, grossing 1.5 billion yuan ($204.6 million) in China box offices.

Yu Zhou, co-founder and president of Light Chaser Animation, revealed that the series started preparations in early 2016 following a strategic move by the company to attract a young adult audience. Its previous features were targeted toward parents and their children.

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Since its founding in 2013, the company, most known for the animated hit Chang'an, has focused on drawing inspiration from Chinese culture and history. The White Snake franchise marks the beginning of their New Legend series, which specializes in visualizing fantasy imbued with traditional Eastern aesthetics and Chinese philosophical thought. The upcoming title in the series Liao Zhai is inspired by Qing Dynasty novelist Pu Songling's Liao Zhai Zhi Yi (Strange Tales from a Chinese Studio).

"The first White Snake film is a prequel set 500 years before the ancient legend. While brainstorming the script, we each had a question: why is Bai so good and loyal to Xu, even though he is cowardly and betrays her after discovering that she is a snake demon?" recalls Yu.

The first White Snake animated film, set during the later Tang Dynasty, reimagines Xu as a snake hunter and Bai as a skilled fighter from a powerful snake spirit clan. On a mission to assassinate a sorcerer-like official threatening her tribe, Bai is injured and loses her memory. Rescued by Xu, they develop a romantic bond. After surviving many perilous moments together, Xu sacrifices his life to save Bai.

The third installment, which became a blockbuster in the summer of 2024, picks up where the 2019 movie left off, fictionalizing Xu's reincarnation 500 years later as a doctor, following the popular portrayal in most modern retellings.

However, the centuries-old tragedy is infused with a lighthearted and comedic tone, marking a breakthrough in the legend's history. Many critics praised this approach for making the story more accessible to the younger generation of moviegoers.

"We have reshaped Xu's personality as a brave man who sticks to what he believes in, even at the cost of fighting against authority and sacrificing his life," says Yu.

Widely regarded as a more modern, value-infused attempt, the second installment in the franchise — Green Snake — elevates Xiaoqing, often a subordinate character in the famous love story, to center stage as the protagonist. It highlights the sisterhood and friendship between Xiaoqing and Bai.

With the country's unprecedented advancements in cinematic techniques, the franchise has managed to vividly bring to life the lively and bustling urban life of the Tang and Song dynasties.

"The White Snake has evolved. From the snakes' scales to facial expressions, everything is more vividly detailed," says Yu.

As the franchise's executive producer, he also revealed that the creative team traveled to Hangzhou multiple times for inspiration. Using archival materials and ancient paintings, such as Along the River During the Qingming Festival, a masterpiece by painter Zhang Zeduan from the Northern Song Dynasty (960-1127), they created a detailed map of the city of Lin'an.

Building on its success in China, the third sequel White Snake: Afloat is scheduled for release in Southeast Asian countries such as Malaysia on Feb 13 and the Philippines on Feb 19. The film will also be released in more Western countries. Linda Jaivin, an Australian Sinologist who assisted in the film's English subtitle translations, added a unique touch to some of the poetic lines inspired by classic literature.

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By exporting popular films like these to international audiences, China's rich folktales and traditional culture are gaining greater global recognition, industry insiders note.

Contact the writer at xufan@chinadaily.com.cn